- Yes
- Yes, for premium
- Yes, for event / gift
- No
I welcome you to the ‘naval suggestions’ section again, gentlemen and ladies!
Continuing to describe significant ships with a rich history, I have the honor to present to your attention a proposal to introduce into the game and add to the development plan the Battleship(pre-dreadnought) “Tsesarevich” - a ship that not only gave rise to the construction of the largest series of Russian early battleships, but also gained fame as the most successful linear a pre-dreadnought type ship that managed to survive the Russo-Japanese and First World Wars.
However, the history of the battleship can speak for itself in detail.
Let’s consider them.
History
“Tsesarevich” was named after the title of the heir to the Russian throne, actually meaning ‘crown prince’.
Attention, hidden content in spoilers.
Spoiler: Design and construction in view of the coming conflict
The end of the 19th century was marked for Russia not only by economic growth, expansion and strengthening in the Far East, simultaneously shifting the main spectrum of its attention there, but also by the directly resulting growth of contradictions with the interests of the British Empire and the Japanese Empire. Japan was rapidly gaining strength and did not strive for compromise at all. The likelihood of a conflict in the Pacific Ocean gradually became visible, and the ships in the Russian Imperial Pacific Fleet needed qualitative reinforcement.
So, at the beginning of 1898, Sovereign Emperor Nikolai Alexandrovich signed the shipbuilding program ‘For the needs of the Far East’, which included the design and construction of armored ships that would not only be inferior to the new Japanese battleships, but would also be capable of surpassing them .
As a result, the maritime department and the technical committee send orders to domestic and foreign shipyards for relevant projects.
Thus, in France, under the general leadership of engineer Lagan, a project was born for an armadillo with 4x305mm guns and 12x152mm, which, similar to the main caliber, would be placed in towers and have a wide field of fire. The shipbuilding company “Forges et Chantiers de la Méditerranée” undertakes the execution of the construction order in La Seine-sur-Mer, near Toulon.
Features of the project were improved armor, where not only the Krupp steel armor belt completely covered the side of the ship, but also one of the first in the history of the battle fleet to include an anti-torpedo bulkhead in the survivability scheme.
It would not be amiss to note two armored decks, eight pumps of the drainage system and transverse bulkheads dividing the ship into ten waterproof compartments. The projected high speed, as for a ship of its class, was also one of the advantages of the future battleship, as well as excellent seaworthiness, allowing the use of the main and auxiliary artillery in conditions that were far from calm; in addition, the hull design was supposed to significantly reduce roll.
The squadron battleship(pre-dreadnought) “Tsesarevich” was launched on February 23, 1901. Construction did not proceed very quickly, encountering certain difficulties and delays along the way, including those associated with improvements to the basic design made on the fly. The displacement alone increases from the initially envisaged 12,000 to 13,100 tons.
There were also other problems, such as with a considerable percentage of defective products from French factories, and with the inconsistency of the main caliber guns, French turrets and gun machines manufactured in the Russian Baltic. Finishing and corrections required a lot of time.
However, on June 27, 1903, sea trials finally took place, during which the Tsarevich reached the required speed of 18.34 knots.
“Tsesarevich” during sea trials
Meanwhile, the political situation continued to heat up.
Due to constant delays and the need to urgently strengthen the Fleet in the Far East, the Russian Admiralty decides to curtail the completion of the battleship as soon as possible, even abandoning the traditional call to the Baltic, and to eliminate the remaining shortcomings on the ship on its own: a new ship was required in Port Arthur.
So, on August 18, 1903, the “Tsesarevich” officially raised the flag of the Russian fleet, and on August 27 it left Toulon.
Spoiler: Shortly before the Russo-Japanese War
“Tsesarevich”, 1903
The very first sea crossing reveals construction defects and is not without accidents - before entering Naples, the eccentric made of cast iron breaks. And, although the part is quickly replaced with a spare one, it also turns out to be made of relatively cheap and widespread, but not the most reliable metal. However, repairs, loading ammunition delivered from the metropolis and waiting for the delivery of ‘new’ parts from France take almost a whole month.
The “Tsesarevich” leaves the Mediterranean Sea, accompanied by the armored cruiser ‘Bayan’, which was also built near Toulon. In light of the approaching conflict, the ships are ordered to carry out night passages without lighting and in combat readiness.
However, after passing through the Suez Canal and following already in the Indian Ocean, the situation with the eccentric is repeated again and also on the same left machine. This time, the repair takes only a day by the crew itself, however, the trend becomes completely obvious: the quality of the material did not stand up to criticism, as was directly stated by the head of the Imperial Naval Headquarters. But still, the haste and urgency of the transition no longer leaves any chance of eliminating the defect in advance - and new and spare parts themselves are ordered for delivery directly to Port-Arthur.
The pre-dreadnought and the matelot pass the rest of the way to the main base of the Pacific Ocean Fleet without incident and arrive at their destination on November 19.
“Tsesarevich” after arriving in Port Arthur
Most of the Squadron by that time was in the ‘armed reserve’, but the newly arrived ships needed a number of additional works and direct training of the crews. These events occupy the remaining time until the end of the campaign: for example, on December 20, new sea trials take place (the battleship’s displacement is now calculated at 14,000 tons), and on December 29, training and practical firing takes place.
Nevertheless, the break after the campaign that ended on January 2, 1904 is not long - already on January 17, preparations for the strategic deployment of the fleet begin, and on January 21, ships from Port-Arthur leave for exercises with the entire Squadron, where they prioritize the restoration of maneuvering and interaction skills - being in reserve is not contributed to maintaining the highest combat readiness.
Japan, who was looking for a conflict and received news of Russian maneuvers, used the information as a formal reason for breaking off diplomatic relations with Russian Empire.
Spoiler: The first salvos of the war
“Tsesarevich” at the Port Arthur roadstead, 1904
On a quiet and clear night on January 27, 1904, the ships of the First Pacific Squadron stood in the outer roadstead of Port-Arthur. The situation turned out to be very tense: on the one hand, the fact of the break with Japan was known; on the other hand, Japan did NOT declare war, and the Russian Empire was still trying to avoid direct conflict and hostilities.
In this light, it was necessary to avoid any activities that could be interpreted as a provocation. Likewise, the ships of the Pacific Fleet were not allowed to carry out overt actions to prepare for defense or maintain mine protection. The patrol at sea was minimal, operating according to peacetime principles.
At the same time, few among the crews believed in the possibility of reaching an agreement with the Japanese: the atmosphere had become extremely tense, and after Japanese ships and representatives left Russian territory the day before, everything became completely obvious.
So the officers and sailors were ready to provide the minimum combat readiness that the Fleet was able to maintain even on their own initiative. So the gun crews and bilge mechanics actually spent the night at their posts, and the watchmen looked out to sea with all their eyes.
However, the destroyers sent earlier on patrol unwittingly played into the hands of the Japanese: the silhouettes flashing in the illumination of the fortress searchlights were mistaken for their own ships.
The first to confidently notice and identify the enemy are the watchmen of the “Tsesarevich”, after which a battle alarm is announced throughout the entire Squadron to the sound of the horns on the ships, the sounds of which are soon drowned out by the roar of the first volleys of the Russo-Japanese War.
A few moments later, the cannonade is cut through by new loud and deep explosions of underwater hits: it becomes clear that the Japanese managed to carry out a torpedo attack even before detection. Fortunately for the Squadron, even such a treacherous attack did not bring significant success to the enemy - out of more than 16 torpedoes fired, only 3 reached their targets.
One of them turns out to be in “Tsesarevich”.
Even at the moment the alarm begins, the crews, without orders, begin to raise steam on their ships, so that any of them soon turns out to be ready to move independently.
However, the new battleship begins to list quite quickly to the left side and the countermeasures taken with the flooding of the corridors on the starboard side did not improve the situation much - and soon, due to the flooding, the light and electricity on the ship were lost, so the fight for survivability begins to be waged manually.
The ship’s commander decides to run the battleship aground at the first opportunity.
Fortunately, the heroic actions of the crew and the bilge mechanic help to gradually reduce the list, which has reached 18 degrees - when the “Tsesarevich” later bypassed the Squadron with the help of its own vehicles and port tugs, many seriously feared that the ship would capsize.
The fate of the battleship was separated from the critical point by only half a degree, the torpedo bulkhead, which played a beneficial role, and the dedicated crew.
One way or another, with the return of light and electricity, and with the start of repair work, a very unsightly picture becomes visible: the stern of the battleship was flooded, the steering wheel stopped functioning, and even the repair patch was not suitable due to the complex design of the side and the nearby screw shaft.
Only closer to the morning, partially dragging along the ground with a trim to the stern, does the Tsarevich manage to get to the inner roadstead of Port-Arthur harbor.
Moreover, some of this work, as well as the subsequent unloading of the aft part of the ship, is not taking place in a calm atmosphere at all: that same morning, the Russian Squadron took on battle with the Japanese “linear” forces that appeared. Although the battle lasted only 40 minutes, it revealed the lack of strength and desire of the Russian fleet to pursue the enemy, including due to the consequences of the night attack.
However, the Tsesarevich’s medium and anti-mine batteries manage to take part in a short battle, as well as, in principle, show the Japanese that they are not welcome.
Repair work on “Tsesarevich”
The next months for the new ship are spent in repairs.
The capabilities of the Port-Arthur dock did not allow restoration work to be carried out there, so the craftsmen of the Russian base - together with the workers of the Baltic plant who soon arrived with the new Navy Commander - have to build an individual caisson for the battleship. With the arrival of these workers, repair work begins to proceed quite energetically, but still takes a total of 118 days, during which quite a lot of fateful events for the Pacific Squadron manage to happen.
Spoiler: Flagship Breakthrough
While the “Tsesarevich” was undergoing repairs, part of its crew was involved in work to strengthen the land defense of the Port-Arthur Fortress, or was transferred for service to other ships of the Squadron.
“Tsesarevich” during repairs in Port Arthur
Even the battleship’s own commander finds himself transferred to the position of port commandant, while his duties were performed by the Senior Officer. Some of the ship’s artillery is also being transported to the land front.
The Pacific Squadron received a particularly strong blow to its combat effectiveness and morale on March 31, 1904, when the “Petropavlovsk”, the flagship of Vice Admiral Makarov, perished in mines along with the entire Commander’s Headquarters.
“Peresvet” of Rear Admiral Ukhtomsky is capable of temporarily leading the ships of the Squadron, performing its duties until a new Commander arrives at the Fortress, but… Soon the Japanese carry out a land landing on the Kwantung Peninsula, which the virtually decapitated Fleet is not able to fend off.
The land siege of Port Arthur begins, and Rear Admiral Vitgeft, a brilliant staff worker, researcher and administrator, but whose most of his service was spent far from the roar of naval guns, is forced to take over the leadership of the Squadron.
However, the new commander had to choose a ship that, at the head of the entire fleet, would ‘first and foremost’ carry his flag towards the enemy forces.
After completing its repairs, the “Tsesarevich” becomes the flagship of the Port-Arthur Squadron, raising the commander’s flag.
Soon Port Arthur finds itself blocked from sea and land, and the first shots of land siege weapons dispel any doubts that the Squadron can remain in its base without the obvious prospect of destruction.
The need for a fleet breakthrough at sea becomes obvious.
The first attempt to break the blockade took place on June 10, 1904, but the timing was not the best. The schedule of high and low water in the insufficiently deep Port Arthur channel significantly limited the squadron’s ability to leave the roadstead, and Japanese observers followed every step of the Russian fleet, as far as their capabilities allowed. Thus, on the route of the Squadron’s intended movement, a mine laying was already carried out by Japanese destroyers.
Nevertheless, with a great delay, the exit of the Squadron took place and can even be considered successful despite the turn back - nevertheless, the Russian ships did not suffer losses, but the night attacks of Japanese destroyers that followed during and after the return were successfully repelled.
The next breakthrough attempt was carried out with more thorough preparation. Almost all the guns previously removed for the ground defense of the Fortress were returned to the ships, and it was decided not to carry out advance trawling of the fairway in order to ensure secrecy - given the enemy’s capabilities, this was much more important.
The crew of the “Tsesarevich” spent the last day in Port-Arthur preparing for departure and tediously waiting.
Occasional ground shelling by Japanese 120-mm guns only aggravated the oppressive atmosphere. In addition, shortly before that, two shells hit the flagship: one hit the armored belt without harming the ship, but the second destroyed the admiral’s cabin, where the telegraph operator was killed, and Rear Admiral Vitgeft himself was slightly wounded.
On the morning of July 28, 1904, a signal went up on the mast of the flagship battleship “Tsesarevich” - “The fleet is informed that the Sovereign Emperor has ordered to sail to Vladivostok.”
Going into its second - last - breakthrough, the First Squadron of the Pacific Ocean Fleet weighed anchor, getting into the wake formation and following the minesweeping caravan of destroyers.
Some ships by this time were already damaged, so at first the speed was kept low, no higher than 8 knots. Later, having reached clear water, the speed was raised to 10 knots, and when the main enemy forces appeared - to 13 knots.
The first phase of the battle began around noon, at long range. The Japanese had an advantage in speed and were able to get closer, but the quality of their shooting, fortunately, did not stand up to criticism: most of the volleys fell with severe undershoots or rough overshoots, and although the “Tsesarevich” was the main target of the Japanese fleet, the Russian flagship did not received significant damage - but hits still happened and the plating sometimes looked worse outwardly than it actually was. Thus, one of the hits damaged the roof of the aft tower, although its staff and mechanisms were not damaged. The ships avoided other damage or mine danger, including thanks to competent maneuvering.
Two hours later, the fleets separated on counter courses and the battle stopped.
After a semaphore survey of the squadron ships about the condition, damage and that everything was generally fine, the teams were given the signal to have lunch. Moreover, the Fleet had long been out in the open, and no enemy was visible ahead.
However, the speed of a squadron is always the speed of its slowest ship, and the Russian fleet could not go to the limit of its capabilities, especially considering the distance to its destination.
The Japanese retained their only - and fatal in this situation - speed advantage.
So, when the breakthrough could already seem successful, the catching Japanese fleet again appeared at the tail of the Russian wake column and at 16:45 the battle resumed with renewed vigor.
Now walking a parallel course, the Japanese concentrated all their fire on the Russian flagship.
Soon, with a relatively short interval, the “Tsesarevich” received two 305-mm hits, which became fatal not only for the Squadron, but for the entire war.
The first to be demolished was the foremast and the wheelhouse with the admiral located there was hit.
However, the commander of the battleship, Captain 1st Rank Ivanov, who actually took command of the entire Squadron, decided not to lower the admiral’s flag so as not to cause panic and undermine the morale of the personnel.
But the second hit that followed fatally knocked everyone in the conning tower out of consciousness, disrupting the ship’s control mechanisms themselves.
With the rudder set to approach the Japanese, the “Tsesarevich” cut through the Squadron’s wake in an uncontrolled circulation.
The Senior Officer, who took command of the battleship, ordered the signal ‘admiral transfers command’ to be raised, but the next most senior flagship of Rear Admiral Ukhtomsky “Peresvet” could not lead the ships due to knocked down mast fastenings - the signals from it were not discernible even to its neighbors.
The formation of the Russian squadron fell into disarray, which was corrected only after the heroic attack of the “Retvizan”. However, as a result, the ships - not knowing that the position of the Japanese was much more dire, not realizing that the Japanese had almost nothing to shoot with and that the battle had actually been won - began to turn back one after another towards Port-Arthur.
By this time, the “Tsesarevich” was able to partially restore control by adjusting the course with the machines. But the ship still did not adhere to the chosen direction well, and the speed decreased somewhat.
Those Japanese ships that still had the opportunity to shoot again tried to fire at the flagship, which was lagging behind the rest of the fleet, but now their attempts were even less effective than in the first phase of the battle. Having received only two hits, the “Tsesarevich” soon disappeared into the thick darkness.
The darkness hid not only the “Tsesarevich” from the Japanese, but also the retreating fleet from its flagship. The battleship could follow, but at the same time, the ship retained the opportunity to try to fulfill the Emperor’s Order.
The acting commander of the battleship, Captain 2nd Rank Shumov, thought precisely in this vein.
So, under the cover of darkness, the ship turned south.
An examination of the battleship revealed that the losses in the crew were not very large, especially for such a battle, and the damage received was not critical: almost all the artillery remained combat-ready, the engine room was in good condition, the holes were not dangerous, and only the wheelhouse alone was significantly damaged.
But still, the damage increased the consumption of coal, which might not have been enough to reach Vladivostok.
In the middle of the night, Captain 1st Rank Ivanov, who had regained consciousness, insisted on first calling at a neutral-friendly port, where repairs could be made and coal supplies could be replenished.
So, on the evening of July 29, the “Tsesarevich” dropped anchor in the roadstead of Qingdao, which was at that moment under German control, where they found a couple of other Russian ships that had broken through here, who decided not to return to the doomed Port-Arthur harbor and were now loading coal in the same way.
“Tsesarevich” in Qingdao after the battle
However, contrary to the initial agreements, which provided for time for repairs, the German authorities demanded that the ‘guests’ immediately disarm, which was done for political reasons, and the crew of the surviving flagship began a now leisurely and full-fledged repair.
“Tsesarevich” in Qingdao
Spoiler: Survivor's Journey
The fate of the rest of the Port-Arthur’s Squadron and the 2nd Pacific Squadron, which was rushing from the Baltic to its aid, was unenviable, as every sailor on the “Tsesarevich” heard about.
In fact, after the signing of the Portsmouth Peace, which put an end to the Russo-Japanese War, the pre-dreadnought was supposed to be the only one of the fifteen battleships that took part in the war to return to the Baltic unscathed. Of course, there were still cruisers, destroyers and a number of other auxiliary ships, but this did not detract too much from the painful mood among the crews. In addition, the situation in the metropolis itself in the fall of 1905 was also far from calm.
They decided not to enter Vladivostok, and a joint voyage with other surviving ships did not work out either - the new voyage for the “Tsesarevich” was to be a solo one.
The pre-dreadnought returned home on February 2, 1906, arriving at Port Alexander III in Libau.
“Tsesarevich” in Algeria, 1906
From this moment on, “Tsesarevich” became the flagship of the “training detachment” of ships, intended mainly for cadets to undergo practice before being promoted to officer. The detachment is also joined by “Slava” - a pre-dreadnought of a related type, which did not have time to be built for the Russo-Japanese War, as well as the cruisers “Bogatyr” and “Oleg” - which managed to fight; “Oleg” even successfully survived the Battle of Tsushima.
Except for participation in a number of internal events, the following months the crews of the “training detachment” are engaged in practical training of maneuvers, assimilate and pass on the experience of the past war, and conduct shooting practice.
Not without many trips abroad.
So, during one of the calls to British ports, the ship and crew had the opportunity to inspect the “Dreadnought”, which was still under construction, whose name would soon lay the foundation for a whole class of new ships.
“Tsesarevich” in Portsmouth
But among these trips there was also one that moved from the category of ‘training’ to the category of ‘rescue’ - when the news of a terrible earthquake off the coast of Sicily spreads across the Mediterranean Sea, a detachment of Russian ships is one of the first to come to the aid of the affected residents.
Upon return, the ship - now officially reclassified as a ‘battleship’ - was to undergo repairs, replacement of worn-out boilers and mechanisms, as well as long-awaited upgrades from among those that were appropriate. One of these upgrades was the installation of new sighting devices, an improved control system and the replacement of the main caliber bolts, which significantly reduced reload time.
New types of shells were also added to the ammunition supply, which were significantly superior to those available before.
“Tsesarevich” in Portland as Flagship of Russian Baltic Battleship Brigade
Having completed the task of training cadets, the “Midshipman detachment” was disbanded, and by February 25, 1911, “Tsesarevich”, “Slava” and the last two Russian-built Baltic battleships - “Andrei Pervozvanny” and “Emperor Pavel I” - formed a new Brigade of battleships. Subsequently, until the start of the First World War, the brigade’s ships participated in foreign campaigns and active exercises.
Spoiler: The Great War
On August 1, 1914, the ship’s crew receives the news of Germany’s declaration of war. On the “Tsesarevich”, again the flagship of the detachment, the historical banner, battered by fragments of Japanese shells during the Battle of the Yellow Sea, is solemnly raised.
Now the task of the Battleship Brigade, formed from ships of the ‘old’ type, is purely defensive: while the new Sevastopol class dreadnoughts were still being completed, it was the old battleships that had to defend the Russian Baltic and the Gulf of Finland from the Germans. However, despite the full readiness of the crews to accept an unequal battle with superior enemy forces, it soon turns out that Germany is afraid to take active naval operations in this direction or does not plan at all.
This, in turn, allows the Brigade to focus its attention further away from Kronstadt and Helsingfors, including facilitating the army’s actions on the land front.
“Tsesarevich” at the head of the 1st Battleship Brigade
At the end of autumn, the “Tsesarevich”, under the flag of the fleet commander, sets out on a joint voyage of old battleships, cruisers and the newly commissioned battleship Sevastopol, which marks the beginning of a new era for the Russian fleet.
When all four new Baltic dreadnoughts enter service, the brigade of ‘old’ ships changes its ‘number’ and becomes the 2nd Battleship Brigade, giving the number ‘1’ to the newcomers.
However, for greater efficiency, the brigade is divided into half, forming pairs. Now, until the actual end of his service, the permanent partner of the “Tsesarevich” is the sister “Slava”, similar in characteristics to him. With it, they provide protection for Finland from possible German raids, cover mine flotillas, and themselves engage in battle with minesweepers and destroyers of the German fleet.
“Tsesarevich” on the roadstead of Helsingfors after modernization
Patrol and training service for the “Tsesarevich” is interrupted by dock visits and repairs.
On August 30, 1916, the battleship, after another docking, goes to Moonsund in support “Slava” to participate in the landing operation, although it is still cancelled. However, when “Slava” itself retires to the metropolis for scheduled repairs, “Tsesarevich” remains in its place for the subsequent winter.
The distance from the capital plays an extremely fortunate and beneficial role for the ship. The unrest and mutinies of the early spring of 1917 did not affect either the sailors or the officers of the ship - although the alarming news itself contributed to the gradual decline in morale and fighting spirit.
However, unlike many other combat units of the Imperial Baltic Fleet, the pair of “Tsesarevich” and “Slava” retain their combat effectiveness, forming a link of reliability and loyalty to the Homeland.
“Tsesarevich” and “Slava” as a battle group
This also predetermines their future fate.
When, in the fall of 1917, the German fleet nevertheless carried out an offensive operation in the Baltic, two old battleships and the cruiser “Bayan”, sent in support, had to stand in the way of Germany’s newest dreadnoughts. However, despite the obviously unequal forces, the Kaiser’s fleet does not achieve success, suffering losses. But the battle is not cheap for Russian ships either: “Slava” is critically damaged and in order to allow others to retreat, at the same time blocking a possible road for the Germans, they decide to scuttle the battleship in the center of the fairway of the Moonsund Canal.
“Tsesarevich”, having taken part in his last battle, returns to base. But the battleship, which did not allow the glory of the Russian Flag to fade, paired with its sister, will no longer be able to go to sea.
Main characteristics
Classification:
- Sub Category: Pre-dreadnought / Battleship
- Class: Tsesarevich-class
Technical component:
- Full load displacement: 13 100 t
- Complement: 749-800
- Boiler & engine:
2 shafts, 2 triple-expansion steam engines, 20 Belleville water tube boilers - Power: 16 300
- Speed: 18,34 knots
Protection:
- Main belt — 250-140 mm
- Upper belt — 200-120 mm
- Deck — 50+40 mm
- Main turret — 254 mm
- Secondary turret — 150 mm
- Main barbettes — 229 mm
- Secondary barbettes — 127 mm
- Conning tower — 254 mm
Weapon: (1912)
- Main battery artillery
2 x twin 305/40-mm naval guns from the Obukhov plant mod.1895 - Secondary battery artillery
6 x twin 152/45-mm Canet guns mod.1892
16 x single 75/50-mm Canet guns mod.1892 (initially 20) - Anti-aircraft artillery
4 x single 47-mm Hotchkiss guns mod.1885 (initially 20)
2 x single 7,62-mm Maxim machine guns mod.1897 (initially 10) - Torpedo armament
2 x single underwater 457-mm torpedo tubes
20 x anchor mines
Thank you for attention!
All resources:
Семенов В.И. «Расплата». — Санкт-Петербург: 1907.
Емелин А.Ю. «Флагман вышел из строя…». — Гангут: Вып. 20. Санкт-Петербург — 1999.
Smigielski A. Imperial Russian Navy Cruiser Varyag. — Conway Maritime Press. London — 1979.
Бережной С.С. Броненосные и линейные корабли. Канонерские лодки. — Военное издательство — 1997.
McLaughlin S. Russian & Soviet Battleships. — Naval Institute Press. Annapolis, Maryland — 2003.
Westwood, J. N. Russia Against Japan, 1904–1905: A New Look at the Russo-Japanese War. - Albany, New York: State University of New York Press. - 1986.